Sustainable Cement Development Using Palm Oil Boiler Ash: Mechanical and Microstructural Evaluation
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Keywords:
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Nano-silica, POBA, Compressive Strength, Durability, Green-Concrete, Eco-Friendly
Abstract
The cement industry significantly contributes to CO2 emissions, releasing approximately 1 ton of CO2 for every ton of cement produced, which accounts for up to 40% of total global industrial emissions. This study aims to mitigate these emissions by utilizing Palm Oil Boiler Ash (POBA) as a clinker substitute, creating POBA Cement with substitution levels ranging from 10% to 30%. The POBA was sourced from the Cikasungka Palm Oil Plantation in Bogor, Indonesia and underwent analysis using X Ray Fluorescence (XRF) andScanningElectron Microscopy (SEM) to assess its chemical properties and microstructure. The findings revealed a decrease in compressive strength with increased POBA substitution levels; however, it maintained a pozzolanic effect that supported the crystallization process, albeit with a longer setting time compared to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Notably, the addition of 1% nano-silica was found to enhance compressive strength more effectively than 3%. This research underscores the potential of POBA as an environmentally friendly clinker substitute for sustainable cement production.
References
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Septriansyah, V., Saloma, S. Nurjannah, A. Saggaff, A. Usman, and S. Ngian (2025). Effect of the Nano-Silica Addition on the Mechanical Properties of Polymer Concrete. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(1); 9–17.
Seralathan, B., K. Ezhil Valavan, S. Eswari, and V. Murugaiyan (2023). Ductility Response of RC Beams Composed of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) and Polypropylene (PP) Fibre. Materials Today: Proceedings.
Shah, V., A. Parashar, G. Mishra, S. Medepalli, S. Krishnan, and S. Bishnoi (2020). Influence of Cement Replacement by Limestone Calcined Clay Pozzolan on the Engineering Properties of Mortar and Concrete. Advances in Cement Research, 32(3); 101–111.
Siregar, S., S. Humaidi, N. Bukit, and E. Frida (2024). Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Fly Ash for a Partial Replacement of Cement in High-Quality, Environmentally Friendly Mortar as a Solution to Industrial Waste. Science and Technology Indonesia, 9(1); 59–68.
Tasnim, S., M. Rahman, and R. Ahmadi (2018). Mechanical Performance of Modified Cement Paste Made with Micro Fine POFA in Ammonium Nitrate Environment. Construction and Building Materials, 162; 534–542.
Thomas, J., A. Mohan, and P. Rajesh (2020). Properties of Concrete Containing Quarry Dust–Fly-Ash Cold-Bonded Aggregates Subjected to Elevated Temperature. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 32(7); 04020178.
Tjahjani, A., Jonbi, D. Suraedi, I. Jun, and R. Chandraningtias (2023). The Effect of Using Lime, Silica Fume and Nano-Silica on Mortar Made from Sea Sand and Seawater. International Journal of GEOMATE, 25(108); 172–182.
Xie, Z., Y. Tian, Y. Li, J. Hu, G. Jamaa, Q. Yuan, and X. Zhu (2023). Understanding the Temperature-Dependent Workability of Cement Paste with Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer. Journal of Building Engineering, 76; 107408.
Yashwanth, M. K., B. G. N. Kumar, and D. S. S. Kumar (2019). Potential of Bagasse Ash As Alternative Cementitious Material in Recycled Aggregate Concrete. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 8(11); 271–276.
Yusuf, F., S. Suprihatin, and N. Indrasti (2025). Improving the Environmental Performance of Palm Oil Industry through the Utilization of Empty Oil Palm Bunches as Organic Fertilizer and Biochar for Soil Amendment. Environmental Challenges, 20; 101185.
Al-Mulali, M. Z., H. Awang, H. P. S. Abdul Khalil, and Z. S. Aljoumaily (2015). The Incorporation of Oil Palm Ash in Concrete As a Means of Recycling: A Review. Cement and Concrete Composites, 55; 129–138.
Anderson, T. R., E. Hawkins, and P. D. Jones (2016). CO2, the Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming: From the Pioneering Work of Arrhenius and Callendar to Today’s Earth System Models. Endeavour, 40(3); 178–187.
Aprianti, E. S. (2017). A Huge Number of Artificial Waste Material Can Be Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) for Concrete Production – A Review Part II. Journal of Cleaner Production, 142; 4178–4194.
ASTM C (2005). 618, Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use As a Mineral Admixture in Concrete. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 4th edition.
ASTM International (2020). Standard Practice for Mechanical Mixing of Hydraulic Cement Pastes and Mortars of Plastic Consistency.
Belkowitz, J. S., W. B. Belkowitz, K. Nawrocki, and F. T. Fisher (2015). Impact of Nanosilica Size and Surface Area on Concrete Properties. ACI Materials Journal, 112(3); 419–427.
Chub-uppakarn, T., T. Chompoorat, T. Thepumong, W. Sae-Long, A. Khamplod, and S. Chaiprapat (2023). Influence of Partial Substitution of Metakaolin by Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Alumina Waste Ash on Compressive Strength and Microstructure in Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer Mortar. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 19; e02519.
Du, H., S. Du, and X. Liu (2015). Effect of Nano-Silica on the Mechanical and Transport Properties of Lightweight Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 82; 114–122.
Gamboa Idrogo, O. G., J. A. Leonardo Céspedes, S. P. Muñoz Pérez, J. L. Leiva Piedra, J. Garcia, and J. Alvarez (2024). Effect of Corn Stover Ash Reinforced with Cabuya Fiber on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete. Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering, 35(2); 103–116.
Hamada, H. M., B. S. Thomas, F. M. Yahaya, K. Muthusamy, J. Yang, J. A. Abdalla, and R. A. Hawileh (2021). Sustainable Use of Palm Oil Fuel Ash As a Supplementary Cementitious Material: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Building Engineering, 40; 102286.
Huang, Z., T. Liang, and L. Chen (2023). Experimental Studies on Durability Performances of Ultra-Lightweight Low-Carbon LC3 Cement Composites Against Chloride Ingression and Carbonation. Construction and Building Materials, 395; 132340.
Junaid, M. F., Z. u. Rehman, M. Kuruc, I. Medveď, D. Bačinskas, J. Čurpek, M. Čekon, N. Ijaz, and W. S. Ansari (2022). Lightweight Concrete from a Perspective of Sustainable Reuse of Waste Byproducts. Construction and Building Materials, 319; 126061.
Karkhaneh, S., A. Tarighat, and S. Ghaffarpour Jahromi (2023). Kinetics Behavior of Delayed Ettringite in Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) by Thermodynamic Approach and Consideration of the Time Factor. Construction and Building Materials, 367; 129143.
Kim, G., S. Cho, J. Moon, H. Suh, S. Her, S. Sim, and S. Bae (2024). Investigation of the Hydrate Formation and Mechanical Performance of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement Paste Incorporating Nano-CaCO3 and Nano-SiO2 As Partial Limestone Substitutes. Construction and Building Materials, 418; 135335.
Long, W.-J., C. Lin, J.-L. Tao, T.-H. Ye, and Y. Fang (2021). Printability and Particle Packing of 3D-Printable Limestone Calcined Clay Cement Composites. Construction and Building Materials, 282; 122647.
Mohammadi, M., A. Bashiri Rezaie, M. Liebscher, T. Köberle, A. Drechsler, R. Frenzel, F. Simon, A. Synytska, and V. Mechtcherine (2023). Interfacial Properties of High-Strength, Limestone-Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) Matrix and PE Fibers, Surface-Modified Using Dopamine and Tannic Acid. Construction and Building Materials, 408; 133537.
Pourakbar, S., A. Asadi, B. Huat, and M. Fasihnikoutalab (2015). Stabilization of Clayey Soil Using Ultrafine Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) and Cement. Transportation Geotechnics, 3; 24–35.
Sata, V., C. Jaturapitakkul, and K. Kiattikomol (2007). Influence of Pozzolan from Various By-Product Materials on Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 21(7); 1589–1598.
Scrivener, K., V. John, and E. Gartner (2018). Eco-Efficient Cements: Potential Economically Viable Solutions for a Low-CO2 Cement-Based Materials Industry. Cement and Concrete Research, 114; 2–26.
Septriansyah, V., Saloma, S. Nurjannah, A. Saggaff, A. Usman, and S. Ngian (2025). Effect of the Nano-Silica Addition on the Mechanical Properties of Polymer Concrete. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(1); 9–17.
Seralathan, B., K. Ezhil Valavan, S. Eswari, and V. Murugaiyan (2023). Ductility Response of RC Beams Composed of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) and Polypropylene (PP) Fibre. Materials Today: Proceedings.
Shah, V., A. Parashar, G. Mishra, S. Medepalli, S. Krishnan, and S. Bishnoi (2020). Influence of Cement Replacement by Limestone Calcined Clay Pozzolan on the Engineering Properties of Mortar and Concrete. Advances in Cement Research, 32(3); 101–111.
Siregar, S., S. Humaidi, N. Bukit, and E. Frida (2024). Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Fly Ash for a Partial Replacement of Cement in High-Quality, Environmentally Friendly Mortar as a Solution to Industrial Waste. Science and Technology Indonesia, 9(1); 59–68.
Tasnim, S., M. Rahman, and R. Ahmadi (2018). Mechanical Performance of Modified Cement Paste Made with Micro Fine POFA in Ammonium Nitrate Environment. Construction and Building Materials, 162; 534–542.
Thomas, J., A. Mohan, and P. Rajesh (2020). Properties of Concrete Containing Quarry Dust–Fly-Ash Cold-Bonded Aggregates Subjected to Elevated Temperature. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 32(7); 04020178.
Tjahjani, A., Jonbi, D. Suraedi, I. Jun, and R. Chandraningtias (2023). The Effect of Using Lime, Silica Fume and Nano-Silica on Mortar Made from Sea Sand and Seawater. International Journal of GEOMATE, 25(108); 172–182.
Xie, Z., Y. Tian, Y. Li, J. Hu, G. Jamaa, Q. Yuan, and X. Zhu (2023). Understanding the Temperature-Dependent Workability of Cement Paste with Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer. Journal of Building Engineering, 76; 107408.
Yashwanth, M. K., B. G. N. Kumar, and D. S. S. Kumar (2019). Potential of Bagasse Ash As Alternative Cementitious Material in Recycled Aggregate Concrete. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 8(11); 271–276.
Yusuf, F., S. Suprihatin, and N. Indrasti (2025). Improving the Environmental Performance of Palm Oil Industry through the Utilization of Empty Oil Palm Bunches as Organic Fertilizer and Biochar for Soil Amendment. Environmental Challenges, 20; 101185.
Authors
Suraedi, D., Sjah, J., Handika, N., Jonbi, & Ashari, A. (2025). Sustainable Cement Development Using Palm Oil Boiler Ash: Mechanical and Microstructural Evaluation. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(4), 1188–1197. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2025.10.4.1188-1197
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.