Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT)-Based Cyber Warfare Exposure Index (CWEI) Mapping of Indonesia's Strategic Infrastructure
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Keywords:
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Cyber Warfare, Geospatial Intelligence, Spatial Risk Assessment, Composite Index, Critical Infrastructure, Indonesia
Abstract
The increasing integration of digital systems into critical infrastructure has transformed cyber warfare into a systemic national security risk with strong spatial characteristics. In Indonesia, rapid digitalization and uneven infrastructure development have expanded the cyber-attack surface, while existing studies remain largely qualitative or rely on aggregated national indices that fail to capture subnational exposure patterns. This study addresses this gap by developing a Cyber Warfare Exposure Index (CWEI) based on Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT) to assess provincial-level exposure across Indonesia. The index integrates seven indicators, energy, transportation, telecommunications, government facilities, internet penetration, night-time light intensity, and urbanization, derived from open-source geospatial data and official statistics. All indicators were normalized using min–max scaling and aggregated through equal weighting, with robustness tested using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Pearson correlation, and One-at-a-Time sensitivity analysis. Results reveal strong spatial disparities in cyber warfare exposure, with CWEI values ranging from 0.019 to 0.746. DKI Jakarta exhibits the highest exposure (CWEI = 0.746), followed by West Java (0.573) and Central Java (0.564), while several eastern provinces fall into the very low exposure category. The equal-weight and PCA-based indices show near-perfect agreement (R² = 0.997; r = 0.998), confirming high methodological robustness. Global Moran's I (0.689; p < 0.001) indicates significant positive spatial clustering of exposure. These findings demonstrate that cyber warfare exposure in Indonesia is highly concentrated and spatially structured, underscoring the need for regionally prioritized, risk-based cyber defense strategies.
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Adityayuda, A., A. A. Supriyadi, and S. Arief (2024). Development of a Remote Sensing System for Real-Time Detection of Military Threats. In 2024 IEEE Asia-Pacific Conference on Geoscience, Electronics and Remote Sensing Technology (AGERS). IEEE, pages 257–268
Aljohani, T. M. (2024). Cyberattacks on Energy Infrastructures as Modern War Weapons-Part I: Analysis and Motives. IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, 43(2); 59–69
Alomari, M. A., M. N. Al-Andoli, M. Ghaleb, R. Thabit, G. Alkawsi, J. A. J. Alsayaydeh, and A. S. A. Gaid (2025). Security of Smart Grid: Cybersecurity Issues, Potential Cyberattacks, Major Incidents, and Future Directions. Energies, 18(1); 141
Alqararah, K. (2023). Assessing the Robustness of Composite Indicators: The Case of the Global Innovation Index. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 12(1); 61
Anggoro, F., R. E. Caraka, F. A. Prasetyo, M. Ramadhani, P. U. Gio, R.-C. Chen, and B. Pardamean (2022). Revisiting Cluster Vulnerabilities towards Information and Communication Technologies in the Eastern Island of Indonesia Using Fuzzy C-Means. Sustainability, 14(6); 3428
APJII Indonesia (2024). Internet Indonesia. Annual Report
Aulianisa, S. S. and I. Indirwan (2020). Lesrev (Lex Scientia Law Review). Lex Scientia Law Review, 4(1); 33–48
Avtar, R., A. Kouser, A. Kumar, D. Singh, P. Misra, A. Gupta, A. P. Yunus, P. Kumar, B. A. Johnson, R. Dasgupta, N. Sahu, and A. B. Rimba (2021). Remote Sensing for International Peace and Security: Its Role and Implications. Remote Sensing, 13(3); 439
Bruno, G., A. Diglio, C. Piccolo, and E. Pipicelli (2023). A Reduced Composite Indicator for Digital Divide Measurement at the Regional Level: An Application to the Digital Economy and Society Index (desi). Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 190; 122461
Chang, T. C., J. H. Tang, and T. C. Chan (2025). Spatiotemporal Impact of Urban Development on Nighttime Light Intensity and Its Hotspot Distribution. PLoS One, 20(6); e0325696
Czuryk, M. (2023). Cybersecurity and Protection of Critical Infrastructure. Studia Iuridica Lublinensia, 32(5); 43–52
Decancq, K. and M. A. Lugo (2013). Weights in Multidimensional Indices of Wellbeing: An Overview. Econometric Reviews, 32(1); 7–34
Elvidge, C. D., K. E. Baugh, M. Zhizhin, and F.-C. Hsu (2013). Why VIIRS Data Are Superior to DMSP for Mapping Nighttime Lights. Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Advanced Network, 35(0); 62
Gasser, P. (2020). A Review on Energy Security Indices to Compare Country Performances. Energy Policy, 139; 111339
Gibson, J., S. Olivia, and G. Boe-Gibson (2020). Night Lights in Economics: Sources and Uses. Journal of Economic Surveys, 34(5); 955–980
Harknett, R. J. and M. Smeets (2022). Cyber Campaigns and Strategic Outcomes. Journal of Strategic Studies, 45(4); 534–567
Ibrahim, A., A. Arief, and S. D. Abdullah (2020). Keamanan untuk Penerapan Layanan Publik pada Sistem Pemerintahan Berbasis Elektronik (SPBE): Sebuah Kajian Pustaka Sistematis. IJIS– Indonesian Journal on Information System, 5(2); 135 (in Indonesia)
Jaya, I. G. N. M., S. M. Pahlevi, A. Susenna, L. Agustina, D. Kusumasari, Y. A. A. Sukma, D. Hernikawati, A. A. Rahmi, A. A. Pravitasari, and F. Kristiani (2024). Framework for Monitoring the Spatiotemporal Distribution and Clustering of the Digital Society Index of Indonesia. Sustainability, 16(24); 11258
Kartiasih, F., N. D. Nachrowi, I. D. G. K. Wisana, and D. Handayani (2023). Inequalities of Indonesia’s Regional Digital Development and Its Association with Socioeconomic Characteristics: A Spatial and Multivariate Analysis. Information Technology for Development, 29(2–3); 299–328
Lasaiba, M. A. (2022). Perkotaan dalam Perspektif Kemiskinan, Permukiman Kumuh dan Urban Heat Island (Suatu Telaah Literatur). GEOFORUM, 1(2); 63–72 (in Indonesia)
Li, S. and J. Shan (2022). Adaptive Geometric Interval Classifier. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 11(8); 430
Liu, X., M. Chen, C. Claramunt, M. Batty, M.-P. Kwan, A. M. Senousi, T. Cheng, J. Strobl, A. Cöltekin, J. Wilson, T. Bandrova, M. Konecny, P. M. Torrens, F. Zhang, L. He, J. Wang, C. Ratti, O. Kolditz, A. Klippel, S. Li, H. Lin, and G. Lü (2022). Geographic Information Science in the Era of Geospatial Big Data: A Cyberspace Perspective. The Innovation, 3(5); 100279
Manullang, S. O. (2022). The Legality of Devious Cyber Practices: Readiness of Indonesia’s Cyber Laws. Society, 10(2); 489–502
Marull, J., M. Farré, M. Andreu Espuña, A. Prior, V. Galletto, and J. Trullén (2023). How to Measure Large-Scale Complex Urban Network Structures Using Night-Time Light Satellite Databases: Application to European Metropolitan Regions. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 50(7); 1947–1963
Marwan, A., D. O.-C. Garduño, and F. Bonfigli (2022). Detection of Digital Law Issues and Implication for Good Governance Policy in Indonesia. BESTUUR, 10(1); 22
Maulana, E. D., E. Sumarminingsih, Nurjannah, A. B. Astuti, and S. Astutik (2025). Bayesian IGARCH Modeling of Jakarta Composite Index Volatility Using Hamiltonian Monte Carlo Algorithm. Science and Technology Indonesia, 11(1); 261–279
Nardo, M., M. Saisana, A. Saltelli, S. Tarantola, A. Hoffman and, and E. Giovannini (2008). Handbook on Constructing Composite Indicators: Methodology and User Guide
OpenStreetMap (2025). Copyright and License. https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright
Pesaresi, M., M. Schiavina, P. Politis, S. Freire, K. Krasnodębska, J. H. Uhl, A. Carioli, C. Corbane, L. Dijkstra, P. Florio, H. K. Friedrich, J. Gao, S. Leyk, L. Lu, L. Maffenini, I. Mari-Rivero, M. Melchiorri, V. Syrris, J. Van Den Hoek, and T. Kemper (2024). Advances on the Global Human Settlement Layer by Joint Assessment of Earth Observation and Population Survey Data. International Journal of Digital Earth, 17(1); 1–54
Pramono, B. (2025). Strategic Adaptations for Hybrid Warfare: Enhancing Indonesian National Defence in the Digital ERA. International Journal of Innovative Research and Scientific Studies, 8(6); 974–981
Reveron, D. S. and J. E. Savage (2020). Cybersecurity Convergence: Digital Human and National Security. Orbis, 64(4); 555–570
Setiawan, S., A. A. Supriyadi, P. Widodo, and D. A. Navalino (2024). Aerial Photo Database Model of Indonesia’s National Territory in a Geospatial Intelligence Perspective. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 16(2); 637–645
Situmorang, A. C., M. Suryanegara, D. Gunawan, and F. H. Juwono (2023). Proposal of the Indonesian Framework for Telecommunications Infrastructure Based on Network and Socioeconomic Indicators. Informatics, 10(2); 44
Sommer, U., E. Matania, and N. Hassid (2023). The Rise of Companies in the Cyber Era and the Pursuant Shift in National Security. Political Science, 75(2); 140–164
Starovoitov, V. V. and Y. I. Golub (2021). Data Normalization in Machine Learning. Informatics, 18(3); 83–96
Suhadi, Supari, I. Iskandar, M. Irfan, and H. Akhsan (2023). Drought Assessment in Aceh and North Sumatra Using Effective Drought Index. Science and Technology Indonesia, 8(2); 259–264
Venkatachary, S. K., J. Prasad, A. Alagappan, L. J. B. Andrews, R. A. Raj, and S. Duraisamy (2024). Cybersecurity and Cyber-Terrorism Challenges to Energy-Related Infrastructures– Cybersecurity Frameworks and Economics– Comprehensive Review. International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection, 45; 100677
Wibowo, A., W. Alawiyah, and Azriadi (2024). The Importance of Personal Data Protection in Indonesia’s Economic Development. Cogent Social Sciences, 10(1); 2306751
Wu, R. M., Z. Zhang, W. Yan, J. Fan, J. Gou, B. Liu, E. Gide, J. Soar, B. Shen, S. Fazal-e Hasan, et al. (2022). A Comparative Analysis of the Principal Component Analysis and Entropy Weight Methods to Establish the Indexing Measurement. PloS one, 17(1); e0262261
Yu, Z., H. Gao, X. Cong, N. Wu, and H. H. Song (2023). A Survey on Cyber-Physical Systems Security. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 10(24); 21670–21686
Zeddini, B., M. Maachaoui, and Y. Inedjaren (2022). Security Threats in Intelligent Transportation Systems and Their Risk Levels. Risks, 10(5); 91
Zheng, M., W. Huang, G. Xu, X. Li, and L. Jiao (2023a). Spatial Gradients of Urban Land Density and Nighttime Light Intensity in 30 Global Megacities. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1); 404
Zheng, Q., K. C. Seto, Y. Zhou, S. You, and Q. Weng (2023b). Nighttime Light Remote Sensing for Urban Applications: Progress, Challenges, and Prospects. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 202; 125–141
Authors
Adityayuda, A., Supriyadi, A. A., & Arief, S. (2026). Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT)-Based Cyber Warfare Exposure Index (CWEI) Mapping of Indonesia's Strategic Infrastructure. Science and Technology Indonesia, 11(2), 677–691. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2026.11.2.677-691
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