Molten Salt Synthesis of SrTi0.95Fe0.05O3: The Effect of Chloride Salt Type Study
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Keywords:
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Fe-doped SrTiO3, Molten Salt Method, Chloride Salt Type
Abstract
Strontium titanate (SrTiO3) refers to a perovskite structure compound reported to have photocatalyst properties. It is well-known that modifying the particle morphology is found to be capable of enhancing the photocatalytic activity as it can increase the reaction sites on the solid surface. Molten salt synthesis is one of the compound synthesis methods to produce the homogeneous particle size as well as the unique morphology. One of the parameters determining the product compound obtained using the molten salt method is the type of salt used. In this study, the SrTi0.95Fe0.05O3 was synthesized by the molten salt method using NaCl, KCl, and NaCl/KCl salt. It also studied the effects of chloride salt type to structure, vibration mode, morphology particle, band gap energy, and thermal stability of product samples. The diffractograms showed that SrTi0.95Fe0.05O3 were successfully synthesized; however, the sample obtained using molten KCl salt had the impurities of TiO2, and SrCO3 (residual of precursors) indicating that the KCl flux was insufficient to make a complete reaction. The characteristic of infrared vibration modes of the SrTiO3 compound were found in all samples. The image of scanning electron microscopy showed that all particle morphology was in the quadrate-particle shape, and the SrTi0.95Fe0.05O3-KCl sample had the smallest particles for having the largest surface area. The Kubelka-Munk equation calculation results showed that all samples’ band gap energy was approximately at ∼3 eV. The DSC curve showed a relatively similar pattern; therefore, the thermal stability properties of all samples were similar.
References
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Mohan, S. and Y. Mao (2020). Molten Salt Synthesized Submicron Perovskite La1–xSrxCoO3 Particles as Efficient Electrocatalyst for Water Electrolysis. Frontiers in Materials, 7; 1–10.
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Rajkoomar, N., A. Murugesan, S. Prabu, and R. M. Gengan (2020). Synthesis of Methyl Piperazinyl-Quinolinyl ????-Aminophosphonates Derivatives Under Microwave Irradiation with Pd–SrTiO3 Catalyst and Their Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities. Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Silicon and the Related Elements, 195(12); 1031–1038
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Sudrajat, H., M. M. Fadlallah, S. Tao, M. Kitta, N. Ichikuni, and H. Onishi (2020). Dopant Site in Indium-Doped SrTiO3 Photocatalysts. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 22; 19178–19187
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Utomo, W. P., P. A. I. Afifah, A. I. Rozafia, A. A. Mahardika, E. Santoso, R. Liu, and D. Hartanto (2024). Modulation of Particle Size and Morphology of Zinc Oxide in Graphitic Carbon Nitride/Zinc Oxide Composites for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation of Methylene Blue. Surfaces and Interfaces, 46; 104017
Wakao, M., K. Minami, and A. Nagashima (1991). Viscosity Measurements of Molten LiCl in the Temperature Range 886-1275 K. International Journal of Thermophysics, 12; 223–230
Wei, H., J. Cai, Y. Zhang, X. Zhang, E. A. Baranova, J. Cui, Y. Wang, X. Shu, Y. Qin, J. Liu, and Y. Wu (2020). Synthesis of SrTiO3 Submicron Cubes with Simultaneous and Competitive Photocatalytic Activity for H2O Splitting and CO2 Reduction. RSC Advances, 10; 42619–42627
Xie, T. H., X. Sun, and J. Lin (2008). Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation of RhB Driven by Visible Light-Induced MMCT of Ti(IV)-O-Fe(II) Formed in Fe-Doped SrTiO3. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 112(26); 9753–9759
Xu, Y., Y. Liang, Q. He, R. Xu, D. Chen, X. Xu, and H. Hu (2023). Review of Doping SrTiO3 for Photocatalytic Applications. Bulletin of Materials Science, 46(6)
Xue, P., H. Wu, Y. Lu, and X. Zhu (2018). Recent Progress in Molten Salt Synthesis of Low-Dimensional Perovskite Oxide Nanostructures, Structural Characterization, Properties, and Functional Applications: A Review. Journal of Materials Science and Technology, 34(6); 914–930
Zhang, G., W. Jiang, S. Hua, H. Zhao, L. Zhang, and Z. Sun (2016). Constructing Bulk Defective Perovskite SrTiO3 Nanocubes for High Performance Photocatalyst. Nanoscale, 8; 16963–16968
Zheng, K., T. Chen, J. Zhang, X. Tian, H. Ge, T. Qiao, J. Lei, X. Li, T. Duan, and W. Zhu (2019). Nano-Montmorillonite Regulated Crystallization of Hierarchical Strontium Carbonate in a Microbial Mineralization System. Materials, 12; 1392
Abdi, M., V. Mahdikhah, and S. Sheibani (2020). Visible Light Photocatalytic Performance of La-Fe Co-Doped SrTiO3 Perovskite Powder. Optical Materials, 102; 109803.
Abreu, Y. G., J. C. Soares, R. L. Moreira, and A. Dias (2016). Monitoring the Structural and Vibrational Properties in RE-Doped SrTiO3 Ceramic Powders. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 120(30); 16960–16968.
Ahmadi, M., M. S. S. Dorraji, I. Hajimiri, and M. H. Rasoulifard (2021). The Main Role of CuO Loading Against Electron-Hole Recombination of SrTiO3: Improvement and Investigation of Photocatalytic Activity, Modeling, and Optimization by Response Surface Methodology. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 404; 112886.
Assirey, E. A. R. (2019). Perovskite Synthesis, Properties and Their Related Biochemical and Industrial Application. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 27(6); 817–829.
Boltersdorf, J., N. King, and P. A. Maggard (2015). Flux-Mediated Crystal Growth of Metal Oxides: Synthetic Tunability of Particle Morphologies, Sizes, and Surface Features for Photocatalysis Research. CrystEngComm, 17; 2225–2241.
Bullard, J. W., Q. Jin, and K. A. Snyder (2021). How Do Specific Surface Area and Particle Size Distribution Change When Granular Media Dissolve? Chemical Engineering Journal, 406; 127098.
Chen, K., Q. Fan, C. Chen, Z. Chen, A. Alsaedi, and T. Hayat (2019). Insights into the Crystal Size and Morphology of Photocatalysts. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 538; 638–647.
Dawa, T. and B. Sajjadi (2024). Exploring the Potential of Perovskite Structures for Chemical Looping Technology: A State-of-the-Art Review. Fuel Processing Technology, 253; 108022.
Evarestov, R. A., A. V. Bandura, and E. N. Blokhin (2007). The Water Adsorption on the Surfaces of SrMO3 (M = Ti, Zr, and Hf) Crystalline Oxides: Quantum and Classical Modelling. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 93; 012001.
Fan, Y., Y. Liu, H. Cui, W. Wang, Q. Shang, X. Shi, G. Cui, and B. Tang (2020). Photocatalytic Overall Water Splitting by SrTiO3 with Surface Oxygen Vacancies. Nanomaterials, 10(12); 1–10.
Fuentes, S., P. Muñoz, N. Barraza, E. Chávez-Ángel, and C. M. S. Torres (2015). Structural Characterisation of Slightly Fe-Doped SrTiO3 Grown via a Sol–Gel Hydrothermal Synthesis. Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology, 75(3); 593–601.
Gao, H., H. Yang, and S. Wang (2018). Hydrothermal Synthesis, Growth Mechanism, Optical Properties and Photocatalytic Activity of Cubic SrTiO3 Particles for the Degradation of Cationic and Anionic Dyes. Optik, 175; 237–249.
Gupta, S. K. and Y. Mao (2021). A Review on Molten Salt Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanomaterials: Status, Opportunity, and Challenge. Progress in Materials Science, 117; 100734.
Kanhere, P. and Z. Chen (2014). A Review on Visible Light Active Perovskite-Based Photocatalysts. Molecules, 19(12); 19995–20022.
Kato, H., M. Kobayashi, M. Hara, and M. Kakihana (2013). Fabrication of SrTiO3 Exposing Characteristic Facets Using Molten Salt Flux and Improvement of Photocatalytic Activity for Water Splitting. Catalysis Science & Technology, 3(7); 1733–1738.
Kimura, T. (2011). Molten Salt Synthesis of Ceramic Powders. IntechOpen, London, UK.
Lee, D. E., M. K. Kim, M. Danish, and W. K. Jo (2023). State of the Art Review on Photocatalysis for Efficient Wastewater Treatment: Attractive Approach in Photocatalyst Design and Parameters Affecting the Photocatalytic Degradation. Catalysis Communications, 183; 106764.
Li, J., X. Tang, Q. Liu, Y. Jiang, and Z. Tang (2021). Resistive Switching and Optical Properties of Strontium Ferrate Titanate Thin Film Prepared via Chemical Solution Deposition. Journal of Advanced Ceramics, 10(5); 1001–1010.
Li, Z., S. Zhang, and W. E. Lee (2007a). Molten Salt Synthesis of Zinc Aluminate Powder. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 27(12); 3407–3412.
Li, Z., X. Zhang, J. Hou, and K. Zhou (2007b). Molten Salt Synthesis of Anisometric Sr3Ti2O7 Particles. Journal of Crystal Growth, 305(1); 265–270.
Liu, D., Q. Fu, and Y. Chu (2020). Molten Salt Synthesis, Formation Mechanism, and Oxidation Behavior of Nanocrystalline HfB2 Powders. Journal of Advanced Ceramics, 9; 35–44.
Liu, Y. F., Y. N. Lu, M. Xu, L. F. Zhou, and S. Z. Shi (2009). Topochemical Reaction of SrTiO3 Platelet Crystals Based on Sr3Ti2O7 Platelet Precursor in Molten Salt Synthesis Process. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 114(1); 37–42.
Melcher, J., N. Barth, C. Schilde, A. Kwade, and D. Bahnemann (2017). Influence of TiO2 Agglomerate and Aggregate Sizes on Photocatalytic Activity. Journal of Materials Science, 52; 1047–1056.
Mohan, S. and Y. Mao (2020). Molten Salt Synthesized Submicron Perovskite La1–xSrxCoO3 Particles as Efficient Electrocatalyst for Water Electrolysis. Frontiers in Materials, 7; 1–10.
Murai, K. I., T. Nishiura, R. Nagata, and T. Moriga (2021). Fabrication and Evaluation of Ca-Doped SrTiO3 Thermoelectric Materials by Molten Salt Method. International Journal of Modern Physics B, 35(14-16).
Nunocha, P., M. Kaewpanha, T. Bongkarn, A. Eiad-Ua, and T. Suriwong (2022). Effect of Nb Doping on the Structural, Optical, and Photocatalytic Properties of SrTiO3 Nanopowder Synthesized by Sol-Gel Auto Combustion Technique. Journal of Asian Ceramic Societies, 10(3); 583–596
Phoon, B. L., C. W. Lai, J. C. Juan, P.-L. Show, and W.-H. Chen (2019). A Review of Synthesis and Morphology of SrTiO3 for Energy and Other Applications. International Journal of Energy Research, 43; 5151–5174
Prasetiyo, A. D., D. R. Novianti, H. Maulidianingtiyas, and A. Prasetyo (2021). Molten Salt Synthesis of Photocatalyst Material SrTix-1FexO3 (x= 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2). In AIP Conference Proceedings, volume 2349. page 020036
Putri, Y. E., T. P. Wendari, D. Dinda, M. Arnel, H. Faradilla, R. Refinel, and M. Efdi (2024). The Hydrothermal Synthesis of SrTiO3 Nanopolyhedral with the Assistance of Surfactants and Their Optical Characteristics. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 9; 100601
Putri, Y. E., T. P. Wendari, A. A. Rahmah, R. Refinel, S. M. Said, N. Sofyan, and D. V. Wellia (2022). Tuning the Morphology of SrTiO3 Nanocubes and Their Enhanced Electrical Conductivity. Ceramics International, 48(4); 5321–5326
Rahman, Q. I., M. Ahmad, S. K. Misra, and M. Lohani (2012). Efficient Degradation of Methylene Blue Dye Over Highly Reactive Cu-Doped Strontium Titanate (SrTiO3) Nanoparticles Photocatalyst Under Visible Light. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 12; 7181–7186
Rajkoomar, N., A. Murugesan, S. Prabu, and R. M. Gengan (2020). Synthesis of Methyl Piperazinyl-Quinolinyl ????-Aminophosphonates Derivatives Under Microwave Irradiation with Pd–SrTiO3 Catalyst and Their Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities. Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Silicon and the Related Elements, 195(12); 1031–1038
Rizwan, M., M. Anwar, Z. Usman, M. Shakil, S. S. A. Gillani, H. B. Jin, C. B. Cao, and U. Mushtaq (2019). Implementation of Magnesium Doping in SrTiO3 for Correlating Electronic, Structural and Optical Properties: A DFT Study. Chinese Journal of Physics, 62; 388–394
Shafique, H., S. A. Aldaghfag, M. Kashif, M. Zahid, M. Yaseen, J. Iqbal, A. Misbah, and R. Neffati (2021). Magnetic and Optical Characteristics of Fe-Doped SrTiO3 Perovskite Compound: A First Principle Study. Chalcogenide Letters, 18(10); 589–599
Shen, H., Y. Lu, Y. Wang, Z. Pan, G. Cao, X. Yan, and G. Fang (2016). Low-Temperature Hydrothermal Synthesis of SrTiO3 Nanoparticles Without Alkali and Their Effective Photocatalytic Activity. Journal of Advanced Ceramics, 5; 298–307
Sood, S., A. Umar, S. K. Mehta, and S. K. Kansal (2015). Highly Effective Fe-Doped TiO2 Nanoparticles Photocatalysts for Visible-Light Driven Photocatalytic Degradation of Toxic Organic Compounds. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 450; 213–223
Sudrajat, H., M. M. Fadlallah, S. Tao, M. Kitta, N. Ichikuni, and H. Onishi (2020). Dopant Site in Indium-Doped SrTiO3 Photocatalysts. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 22; 19178–19187
Tanigawa, S., T. Takashima, and H. Irie (2017). Enhanced Visible-Light-Sensitive Two-Step Overall Water-Splitting Based on Band Structure Controls of Titanium Dioxide and Strontium Titanate. Journal of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, 5(1); 129–141
Toby, B. H. (2006). R Factors in Rietveld Analysis: How Good is Good Enough? Powder Diffraction, 21(1); 67–70
Utomo, W. P., P. A. I. Afifah, A. I. Rozafia, A. A. Mahardika, E. Santoso, R. Liu, and D. Hartanto (2024). Modulation of Particle Size and Morphology of Zinc Oxide in Graphitic Carbon Nitride/Zinc Oxide Composites for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation of Methylene Blue. Surfaces and Interfaces, 46; 104017
Wakao, M., K. Minami, and A. Nagashima (1991). Viscosity Measurements of Molten LiCl in the Temperature Range 886-1275 K. International Journal of Thermophysics, 12; 223–230
Wei, H., J. Cai, Y. Zhang, X. Zhang, E. A. Baranova, J. Cui, Y. Wang, X. Shu, Y. Qin, J. Liu, and Y. Wu (2020). Synthesis of SrTiO3 Submicron Cubes with Simultaneous and Competitive Photocatalytic Activity for H2O Splitting and CO2 Reduction. RSC Advances, 10; 42619–42627
Xie, T. H., X. Sun, and J. Lin (2008). Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation of RhB Driven by Visible Light-Induced MMCT of Ti(IV)-O-Fe(II) Formed in Fe-Doped SrTiO3. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 112(26); 9753–9759
Xu, Y., Y. Liang, Q. He, R. Xu, D. Chen, X. Xu, and H. Hu (2023). Review of Doping SrTiO3 for Photocatalytic Applications. Bulletin of Materials Science, 46(6)
Xue, P., H. Wu, Y. Lu, and X. Zhu (2018). Recent Progress in Molten Salt Synthesis of Low-Dimensional Perovskite Oxide Nanostructures, Structural Characterization, Properties, and Functional Applications: A Review. Journal of Materials Science and Technology, 34(6); 914–930
Zhang, G., W. Jiang, S. Hua, H. Zhao, L. Zhang, and Z. Sun (2016). Constructing Bulk Defective Perovskite SrTiO3 Nanocubes for High Performance Photocatalyst. Nanoscale, 8; 16963–16968
Zheng, K., T. Chen, J. Zhang, X. Tian, H. Ge, T. Qiao, J. Lei, X. Li, T. Duan, and W. Zhu (2019). Nano-Montmorillonite Regulated Crystallization of Hierarchical Strontium Carbonate in a Microbial Mineralization System. Materials, 12; 1392
Authors
Pertiwi, U. D. ., Anwari, N. S. ., Safitri, W. N. ., Pramono, E. ., & Prasetyo, A. (2025). Molten Salt Synthesis of SrTi0.95Fe0.05O3: The Effect of Chloride Salt Type Study. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(2), 519–527. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2025.10.2.519-527
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