A Multidimensional Assessment of Spouted-bed Roasted Almonds for Mitigating Acrylamide Formation While Enhancing Sensory and Functional Attributes
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Keywords:
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Prunus dulcis, Spouted-Bed Roasting, Acrylamide, Antioxidant Activity, Maillard Reaction, Sensory Evaluation
Abstract
Almonds (Prunus dulcis) are widely valued for their nutritional composition and sensory properties, and roasting is commonly applied to enhance their flavor and extend their shelf life. However, thermal processing can degrade bioactive compounds and promote acrylamide formation. This study examined the effects of spouted-bed fluidization roasting at temperatures ranging from 150 to 180 °C for 5 to 7 min on acrylamide levels, antioxidant activity, physicochemical characteristics, and sensory profiles of almonds. The analytical methods included texture analysis, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), colorimetry, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and descriptive sensory evaluation. Acrylamide concentrations ranged from undetectable levels (<40 ppb) at 150 °C for 5 min to 1,672 ppb at 180 °C for 7 min. Total phenolic content increased at higher roasting temperatures (170–180 °C), reaching up to 0.90mg GAE/g, while antioxidant activity decreased from 0.51MBHA/g in raw almonds to 0.15–0.37MBHA/g in roasted samples. Roasting also reduced the moisture content (from 5.38% to 1.09%) and fracturability (from 102.39N to 71.81N), increased the browning intensity (BI: 42.13 to 30.77), and altered the FTIR spectra, indicating the formation of esters and carboxylic acids via Maillard reactions. Sensory evaluation showed that higher temperatures enhanced crispiness and aroma, but also increased bitterness and burnt characteristics. Overall, spouted-bed roasting at 160–170°C for 5–7 min minimized acrylamide formation while maintaining favorable sensory quality and preserving phenolic compounds. These results provide a basis for optimizing almond roasting parameters to improve safety and nutritional retention.
References
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Nagaraju, V. D. and B. S. Sridhar (2014). Hydrodynamics And Heat Transfer Characteristics Of Draft Tube Spouted-Bed Roasting Of Groundnuts (Arachis hypogeae). International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 3(7); 178–186
Ng, S., O. Lasekan, K. Muhammad, R. Sulaiman, and N. Hussain (2014). Effect of Roasting Conditions on Color Development and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) Analysis of Malaysian-Grown Tropical Almond Nuts (Terminalia catappa L.). Cardiovascular Intervention and Therapeutics, 8(55); 1–11
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Singh, T. and A. S. Kushwah (2018). Acrylamide: A Possible Risk Factor for Cardiac Health. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, 11(10); 39–48
Suvari, M., G. T. Sivri, and O. Oksuz (2017). Effect of Different Roasting Temperatures on Acrylamide Formation of Some Different Nuts. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 11(4); 38–43
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Varela, P., J. Chen, S. Fiszman, and M. J. W. Povey (2006). Crispness Assessment of Roasted Almonds by an Integrated Approach to Texture Description: Texture, Acoustics, Sensory and Structure. Journal of Chemometrics, 20(6–7); 311–320
Yohanes, H., W. S. Kompiang, and S. E. Agus (2022). Study of Heat Transfer and Product Characterization in Spouted-Bed Coffee Roaster. Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences, 92(2); 182–190
Zhang, G., G. Huang, L. Xiao, J. Seiber, and A. E. Mitchell (2011). Acrylamide Formation in Almonds (Prunus dulcis): Influences of Roasting Time and Temperature, Precursors, Varietal Selection, and Storage. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(15); 8225–8232
Apaydın, H., M. Demirci, E. Bölük, B. Kopuk, and I. Palabiyik (2024). Effect of Different Roasting Conditions on the Physicochemical Properties, Acrylamide Concentration, and Mineral Bioaccessibility of Nuts. Food Bioscience, 58(1); 103646
Barreca, D., S. M. Nabavi, A. Sureda, M. Rasekhian, R. Raciti, A. S. Silva, and G. Mandalari (2020). Almonds (Prunus dulcis Mill. D. A. Webb): A Source of Nutrients and Health-Promoting Compounds. Nutrients, 12(3); 672
Cleveland, C. J. and C. B. T.-D. o. E. Morris, editors (2015). Dictionary of Energy. Elsevier, Boston, second e. edition
Enders, A. A., N. M. North, C. M. Fensore, J. Velez-Alvarez, and H. C. Allen (2021). Functional Group Identification for FTIR Spectra Using Image-Based Machine Learning Models. Analytical Chemistry, 93(28); 9711–9718
Endeshaw, H. and A. Belay (2020). Optimization of the Roasting Conditions to Lower Acrylamide Content and Improve the Nutrient Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Coffea Arabica. PLoS ONE, 15(8 August); 1–18
Franklin, L. M., E. S. King, D. Chapman, N. Byrnes, G. Huang, and A. E. Mitchell (2018). Flavor and Acceptance of Roasted California Almonds During Accelerated Storage. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 66(5); 1222–1232
Gebauer, S. K., J. A. Novotny, G. M. Bornhorst, and D. J. Baer (2016). Food Processing and Structure Impact the Metabolizable Energy of Almonds. Food and Function, 7(10); 4231–4238
Giat Coffee Roastery (2024). Spouted-Bed Coffee Roaster
Góral, D., F. Kluza, K. Kozłowicz, D. Góral, F. Kluza, and K. Kozłowicz (2017). Spouted-Bed and Jet Impingement Fluidization in Food Industry. In Heat Transfer - Models, Methods and Applications
Huang, D., W. Huang, S. Huang, F. Zhou, G. Gong, L. Li, and B. Sunden (2023). Applications of Spouted-Bed Technology in the Drying of Food Products. LWT, 182(2023); 114880
Huang, G. M. (2014). Almond Shelf Life Factors
King, E. and H. Heymann (2014). Almond Sensory Attribute. Training How to Train a Group to Describe Sensory Differences Among Almonds
Kodad, O., G. Estopañán, K. Baddir, T. Juan, M. Sindic, and R. Socias I Company (2016). Chemical Changes in the Composition of Roasted Kernels of Moroccan Almonds. Options Méditerranéennes, A, 40(119); 275–278
Lin, J. T., S. C. Liu, C. C. Hu, Y. S. Shyu, C. Y. Hsu, and D. J. Yang (2016). Effects of Roasting Temperature and Duration on Fatty Acid Composition, Phenolic Composition, Maillard Reaction Degree and Antioxidant Attribute of Almond (Prunus dulcis) Kernel. Food Chemistry, 190(2016); 520–528
Lipan, L., M. Cano-Lamadrid, L. Vázquez-Araújo, J. Łyczko, A. Moriana, F. Hernández, and Á. A. Carbonell-Barrachina (2020). Optimization of Roasting Conditions in Hydro Sustainable Almonds Using Volatile and Descriptive Sensory Profiles and Consumer Acceptance. Journal of Food Science, 85(11); 3969–3980
Lukac, H., T. M. Amrein, R. Perren, B. Conde-Petit, R. Amadò, and F. Escher (2007). Influence of Roasting Conditions on the Acrylamide Content and the Color of Roasted Almonds. Journal of Food Science, 72(1); C033–C038
Lukman, L., N. Rosita, and R. Widyowati (2024). Assessment of Antioxidant Activity, Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Contents of Albizia Saponaria L. Bark Extract. Science and Technology Indonesia, 9(2); 494–501
Martins, L. M., A. S. Sant’Ana, B. T. Iamanaka, M. I. Berto, J. I. Pitt, and M. H. Taniwaki (2017). Kinetics of Aflatoxin Degradation During Peanut Roasting. Food Research International, 97(2017); 178–183
Mesías, M., C. Palenzuela, E. Olombrada, F. Holgado, and F. J. Morales (2024). Acrylamide and Hydroxymethylfurfural Formation in Roasted Almonds (Prunus dulcis). Food Control, 156(2024); 110140
Mottram, D. S., B. L. Wedzicha, and A. T. Dodson (2002). Acrylamide Is Formed in the Maillard Reaction. Nature, 419(6906); 448–449
Murata, M. (2021). Browning and Pigmentation in Food Through the Maillard Reaction. Glycoconjugate Journal, 38(3); 283–292
Nagaraju, V. D., K. Ramalakshmi, and B. S. Sridhar (2016). Cryo Assisted Spouted-Bed Roasting of Coffee Beans. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 37; 138–144
Nagaraju, V. D. and B. S. Sridhar (2014). Hydrodynamics And Heat Transfer Characteristics Of Draft Tube Spouted-Bed Roasting Of Groundnuts (Arachis hypogeae). International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 3(7); 178–186
Ng, S., O. Lasekan, K. Muhammad, R. Sulaiman, and N. Hussain (2014). Effect of Roasting Conditions on Color Development and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) Analysis of Malaysian-Grown Tropical Almond Nuts (Terminalia catappa L.). Cardiovascular Intervention and Therapeutics, 8(55); 1–11
Oktiansyah, R., H. Widjajanti, A. Setiawan, and Elfita (2024). Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activity of Endophytic Fungi Isolated From Fruit of Sungkai (Peronema canescens). Science and Technology Indonesia, 9(1); 17–27
Oliveira, I., A. Meyer, S. Afonso, C. Ribeiro, and B. Gonçalves (2018). Morphological, Mechanical and Antioxidant Properties of Portuguese Almond Cultivars. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 55(2); 467–478
Oliveira, I., A. S. Meyer, S. Afonso, A. Sequeira, A. Vilela, P. Goufo, and B. Gonçalves (2020). Effects of Different Processing Treatments on Almond (Prunus dulcis) Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activities, Fatty Acids, and Sensorial Characteristics. Plants, 9(11); 1–18
Qureshi, M. N., S. Numonov, A. Abudurexiti, and H. A. Aisa (2016). Phytochemical Investigations and Evaluation of Antidiabetic Potential of Prunus dulcis Nuts. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 66; 311–317
Sharma, S. and N. raj (2018). FTIR Spectroscopic Characterisation of Almond Varieties (Prunus dulcis) From Himachal Pradesh (India). International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7(05); 887–898
Singh, T. and A. S. Kushwah (2018). Acrylamide: A Possible Risk Factor for Cardiac Health. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, 11(10); 39–48
Suvari, M., G. T. Sivri, and O. Oksuz (2017). Effect of Different Roasting Temperatures on Acrylamide Formation of Some Different Nuts. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 11(4); 38–43
The Good Scents Company (2018). Odor Descriptor Listing for Roasted-The Good Scents Company
Varela, P., J. Chen, S. Fiszman, and M. J. W. Povey (2006). Crispness Assessment of Roasted Almonds by an Integrated Approach to Texture Description: Texture, Acoustics, Sensory and Structure. Journal of Chemometrics, 20(6–7); 311–320
Yohanes, H., W. S. Kompiang, and S. E. Agus (2022). Study of Heat Transfer and Product Characterization in Spouted-Bed Coffee Roaster. Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences, 92(2); 182–190
Zhang, G., G. Huang, L. Xiao, J. Seiber, and A. E. Mitchell (2011). Acrylamide Formation in Almonds (Prunus dulcis): Influences of Roasting Time and Temperature, Precursors, Varietal Selection, and Storage. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(15); 8225–8232
Authors
Puspantari, W. ., Yohanes, H., Astin, E. P., Hartono, L. K., Alfa, M. N., Komariyah, K., Atmaji, G., Pramono, E. P., Widodo, W. E., & Setianto, W. B. (2025). A Multidimensional Assessment of Spouted-bed Roasted Almonds for Mitigating Acrylamide Formation While Enhancing Sensory and Functional Attributes. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(4), 1109–1119. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2025.10.4.1109-1119
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