Development of Nanofiber Made of Nanocellulose with Oil Encapsulation of Eucalyptus sp.
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Keywords:
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Nanofiber, Nanocellulose, Electrospinning, Encapsulation, Tissue Engineering
Abstract
The amalgamation of natural polymers derived from lignocellulosic waste with synthetic polymers is a potential avenue for producing high-value products through nanotechnological innovations. Nanofibers are a significant application of nanotechnology and is now being explored as an alternative method for treating lignocellulosic waste. Nanofiber is a fiber generated by an electrospinning device. Cellulose obtained from lignocellulose can be transformed into valuable products, including nanocellulose. This project entails the synthesis of nanofibers via the combination of natural and synthetic polymers, an innovative approach in the field. Natural polymers are derived from alginate and nanocellulose, whilst synthetic polymers are produced from Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA). This study employs nanofibrils in healthcare, specifically as a cartridge filter in masks infused with Eucalyptus sp. This study sought to identify the optimal method for producing nanofibers with a minimal pore size by varying the concentrations of PVA (4%, 8%, 12%, and 16%) and nanocellulose (2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%). This research employs a combination of methods to produce nanocellulose of suitable size, an innovative process. The pretreatment process utilizes a blend of chemical and physical methods. Nanocellulose is synthesized using varying concentrations of sulfuric acid (25%, 50%, and 75%) during the acid hydrolysis process. The optimal nanocellulose size was attained at a sulfuric acid concentration of 50% (40oC, 10 minutes), as evidenced by a mean diameter of 484.3 nm. The amalgamation of physical and chemical methods has demonstrated efficacy in generating a beneficial pore size distribution in nanocellulose. Nanofibers are synthesized utilizing 12% PVA, 0.5% alginate, 2.5% nanocellulose, and 1% Eucalyptus sp. over 30 hours (3 mL), resulting in an average diameter of 200 nm for the created nanofibers. Concurrently, the nanofiber produced in the absence of Eucalyptus sp. exhibited a diameter of 240 nanometers.
References
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Malakar, M. (2024). Eucalyptus sp. : A Wonder Tree. In Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Apple Academic Press, pages Vol1: 185–Vol181: 260
Mallakpour, S., Z. Radfar, and C. M. Hussain (2021). Current Advances on Polymer-Layered Double Hydroxides/Metal Oxides Nanocomposites and Bionanocomposites: Fabrications and Applications in the Textile Industry and Nanofibers. Applied Clay Science, 206; 106054
Md Salim, R., J. Asik, and M. S. Sarjadi (2021). Chemical Functional Groups of Extractives, Cellulose and Lignin Extracted from Native Leucaena leucocephala Bark. Wood Science and Technology, 55; 295–313
Meijaard, E., T. M. Brooks, K. M. Carlson, E. M. Slade, J. Garcia-Ulloa, D. L. Gaveau, and M. J. Struebig (2020). The Environmental Impacts of Palm Oil in Context. Nature Plants, 6(12); 1418–1426
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Pawcenis, D., M. Leśniak, M. Szumera, M. Sitarz, and J. Profic-Paczkowska (2022). Effect of Hydrolysis Time, pH and Surfactant Type on Stability of Hydrochloric Acid Hydrolyzed Nanocellulose. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 222; 1996–2005
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Pimenta, M., A. Marucci, S. Brown, M. Matthews, A. Rao, P. Eklund, and M. Dresselhaus (1998). Resonant Raman Effect in Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes. Journal of Materials Research, 13(9); 2396–2404
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Rehman, R., W. Ahmad, R. Muzaffar, A. Bano, I. Sajid, A. U. Ahsan, and U. Naeem (2024). Insect Repellent and Insecticidal Potential of Two Eucalyptus Species Essential Oils from Subtropical Desert Climate. Chemical Papers, 78(4); 2369–2384
Shoukat, R. and M. I. Khan (2021). Carbon Nanotubes: A Review on Properties, Synthesis Methods and Applications in Micro and Nanotechnology. Microsystem Technologies, 27; 4183–4192
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Syahza, A. and B. Asmit (2020). Development of Palm Oil Sector and Future Challenge in Riau Province, Indonesia. Journal of Science and Technology Policy Management, 11(2); 149–170
Tu, H., M. Zhu, B. Duan, and L. Zhang (2021). Recent Progress in High-Strength and Robust Regenerated Cellulose Materials. Advanced Materials, 33(28); 2000682
Tuhmaz, G. (2024). Perspective Chapter: Sustainable Nanofibers and Their Applications. IntechOpen
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Vârban, R., I. Crișan, D. Vârban, A. Ona, L. Olar, A. Stoie, and R. Ștefan (2021). Comparative FT-IR Prospecting for Cellulose in Stems of Some Fiber Plants: Flax, Velvet Leaf, Hemp and Jute. Applied Sciences, 11(18); 8570
Wang, L., K. Li, K. Copenhaver, S. Mackay, M. E. Lamm, X. Zhao, and D. Neivandt (2021). Review on Nonconventional Fibrillation Methods of Producing Cellulose Nanofibrils and Their Applications. Biomacromolecules, 22(10); 4037–4059
Wohlert, M., T. Benselfelt, L. Wågberg, I. Furó, L. A. Berglund, and J. Wohlert (2022). Cellulose and the Role of Hydrogen Bonds: Not in Charge of Everything. Cellulose; 1–23
Zhang, Q., E. Zhu, T. Li, L. Zhang, and Z. Wang (2024). High-Value Utilization of Cellulose: Intriguing and Important Effects of Hydrogen Bonding Interactions—A Mini-Review. Biomacromolecules, 25(10); 6296–6318
Zhou, M., D. Chen, Q. Chen, P. Chen, G. Song, and C. Chang (2024). Reversible Surface Engineering of Cellulose Elementary Fibrils: From Ultralong Nanocelluloses to Advanced Cellulosic Materials. Advanced Materials, 36(21); 2312220
Aminsobhani, M., H. Razmi, F. Hamidzadeh, and A. Rezaei Avval (2022). Evaluation of the Antibacterial Effect of Xylene, Chloroform, Eucalyptol, and Orange Oil on Enterococcus Faecalis in Nonsurgical Root Canal Retreatment: An Ex Vivo Study. BioMed Research International, 2022(1); 8176172
Apiratikul, N., P. Bunrit, S. Jommaroeng, P. Boonsri, and K. Songsrirote (2025). Synthesis and Application of Schiff Base as a Dual-Mode Chemosensor for Optical Determination of Aluminium Ion Content in Water Samples. Sensors International, 6; 100313
Bacha, E. G. (2022). Response Surface Methodology Modeling, Experimental Validation, and Optimization of Acid Hydrolysis Process Parameters for Nanocellulose Extraction. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering, 40(1); 176–185
Blasi, A., A. Verardi, C. G. Lopresto, S. Siciliano, and P. Sangiorgio (2023). Lignocellulosic Agricultural Waste Valorization to Obtain Valuable Products: An Overview. Recycling, 8(4); 61
Chen, D., K. Cen, X. Zhuang, Z. Gan, J. Zhou, Y. Zhang, and H. Zhang (2022). Insight into Biomass Pyrolysis Mechanism Based on Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin: Evolution of Volatiles and Kinetics, Elucidation of Reaction Pathways, and Characterization of Gas, Biochar and Bio-Oil. Combustion and Flame, 242; 112142
Delgado-Paredes, G. E., P. R. Delgado-Rojas, and C. Rojas-Idrogo (2021). Peruvian Medicinal Plants and Cosmopolitan Plants with Potential Use in the Treatment of Respiratory Diseases and COVID-19. International Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Sciences, 11(2); 295–321
Deligianni, E., E. Pizzi, I. Kavelaki, I. Siden-Kiamos, F. U. Sapienza, R. Fioravanti, and R. Ragno (2023). Screening of the Activity of Sixty Essential Oils Against Plasmodium Early Mosquito Stages in Vitro and Machine Learning Analysis Reveals New Putative Inhibitors of Malaria Parasites. International Journal for Parasitology: Drugs and Drug Resistance, 23; 87–93
Dheyab, A. S., A. J. K. Ibrahim, E. K. Aljumily, M. K. AlOmar, M. F. A. Bakar, and S. F. Sabran (2022). Antimycobacterial Activity and Phytochemical Properties of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Eucalyptus) Extracted by Deep Eutectic Solvents. Materials Today: Proceedings, 65; 2738–2742
Elbhnsawi, N. A., B. H. Elwakil, A. H. Hassanin, N. Shehata, S. S. Elshewemi, M. Hagar, and Z. A. Olama (2023). Nano-Chitosan/Eucalyptus Oil/Cellulose Acetate Nanofibers: Manufacturing, Antibacterial and Wound Healing Activities. Membranes, 13(6); 604
Fan, M., C. Li, Y. Sun, L. Zhang, S. Zhang, and X. Hu (2021). In Situ Characterization of Functional Groups of Biochar in Pyrolysis of Cellulose. Science of the Total Environment, 799; 149354
Flerlage, T., D. F. Boyd, V. Meliopoulos, P. G. Thomas, and S. Schultz-Cherry (2021). Influenza Virus and SARS-CoV-2: Pathogenesis and Host Responses in the Respiratory Tract. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 19(7); 425–441
Fletes-Vargas, G., H. Espinosa-Andrews, J. M. Cervantes-Uc, I. Limón-Rocha, G. Luna-Bárcenas, M. Vázquez-Lepe, and P. Ramos-Martínez (2023). Porous Chitosan Hydrogels Produced by Physical Crosslinking: Physicochemical, Structural, and Cytotoxic Properties. Polymers, 15(9); 2203
Galan, D. M., N. E. Ezeudu, J. Garcia, C. A. Geronimo, N. M. Berry, and B. J. Malcolm (2020). Eucalyptol (1,8-Cineole): An Underutilized Ally in Respiratory Disorders. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 32(2); 103–110
Goscianska, J., R. Freund, and S. Wuttke (2022). Nanoscience Versus Viruses: The SARS-CoV-2 Case. Advanced Functional Materials, 32(14); 2107826
Gupta, A., P. Ayithapu, and R. Singhal (2021). Study of the Electric Field Distribution of Various Electrospinning Geometries and Its Effect on the Resultant Nanofibers Using Finite Element Simulation. Chemical Engineering Science, 235; 116463
Jafari, F., M. Ramezani, H. Nomani, M. S. Amiri, A. T. Moghadam, A. Sahebkar, and A. H. Mohammadpour (2021). Therapeutic Effect, Chemical Composition, Ethnobotanical Profile of Eucalyptus globulus: A Review. Letters in Organic Chemistry, 18(6); 419–452
Kazemzadeh, G., N. Jirofti, H. Kazemi Mehrjerdi, M. Rajabioun, S. A. Alamdaran, D. Mohebbi-Kalhori, and R. Taheri (2022). A Review on Developments of In-Vitro and In-Vivo Evaluation of Hybrid PCL-Based Natural Polymers Nanofibers Scaffolds for Vascular Tissue Engineering. Journal of Industrial Textiles, 52; 15280837221128314
Kim, D., M.-K. Kang, and Y.-H. Kang (2020). Eucalyptol Blocks Diabetes-Associated Disruption of Tight Junction and Blood Retinal Barrier in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells and Diabetic Eyes. Current Developments in Nutrition, 4; 045–046
Kumar, R., S. Sivaganesan, P. Senthamaraikannan, S. Saravanakumar, A. Khan, S. Ajith Arul Daniel, and L. Loganathan (2022). Characterization of New Cellulosic Fiber from the Bark of Acacia nilotica L. Plant. Journal of Natural Fibers, 19(1); 199–208
Liñán-Atero, R., F. Aghababaei, S. R. García, Z. Hasiri, D. Ziogkas, A. Moreno, and M. Hadidi (2024). Clove Essential Oil: Chemical Profile, Biological Activities, Encapsulation Strategies, and Food Applications. Antioxidants, 13(4); 488
Low, Z. L., D. Y. S. Low, S. Y. Tang, S. Manickam, K. W. Tan, and Z. H. Ban (2022). Ultrasonic Cavitation: An Effective Cleaner and Greener Intensification Technology in the Extraction and Surface Modification of Nanocellulose. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 90; 106176
Maftuchah, M., P. I. Christine, and M. Jamaluddin (2020). The Effectiveness of Tea Tree Oil and Eucalyptus Oil Aromatherapy for Toddlers with Common Cold. Jurnal Kebidanan, 10(2); 131–137
Malakar, M. (2024). Eucalyptus sp. : A Wonder Tree. In Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Apple Academic Press, pages Vol1: 185–Vol181: 260
Mallakpour, S., Z. Radfar, and C. M. Hussain (2021). Current Advances on Polymer-Layered Double Hydroxides/Metal Oxides Nanocomposites and Bionanocomposites: Fabrications and Applications in the Textile Industry and Nanofibers. Applied Clay Science, 206; 106054
Md Salim, R., J. Asik, and M. S. Sarjadi (2021). Chemical Functional Groups of Extractives, Cellulose and Lignin Extracted from Native Leucaena leucocephala Bark. Wood Science and Technology, 55; 295–313
Meijaard, E., T. M. Brooks, K. M. Carlson, E. M. Slade, J. Garcia-Ulloa, D. L. Gaveau, and M. J. Struebig (2020). The Environmental Impacts of Palm Oil in Context. Nature Plants, 6(12); 1418–1426
Natrayan, L., A. Merneedi, G. Bharathiraja, S. Kaliappan, D. Veeman, and P. Murugan (2021). Processing and Characterization of Carbon Nanofibre Composites for Automotive Applications. Journal of Nanomaterials, 2021(1); 7323885
Park, M. K., J. Y. Cha, M. C. Kang, H. W. Jang, and Y. S. Choi (2024). The Effects of Different Extraction Methods on Essential Oils from Orange and Tangor: From the Peel to the Essential Oil. Food Science & Nutrition, 12(2); 804–814
Patel, J. K., A. Patel, and D. Bhatia (2021). Introduction to Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology. In Emerging Technologies for Nanoparticle Manufacturing. Springer, pages 3–23
Pawcenis, D., M. Leśniak, M. Szumera, M. Sitarz, and J. Profic-Paczkowska (2022). Effect of Hydrolysis Time, pH and Surfactant Type on Stability of Hydrochloric Acid Hydrolyzed Nanocellulose. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 222; 1996–2005
Pimenta, J., C. Dias, M. Cotovio, and M. J. Saavedra (2023). In Vitro Effect of Eucalyptus Essential Oils and Antiseptics (Chlorhexidine Gluconate and Povidone-Iodine) Against Bacterial Isolates from Equine Wounds. Veterinary Sciences, 11(1); 12
Pimenta, M., A. Marucci, S. Brown, M. Matthews, A. Rao, P. Eklund, and M. Dresselhaus (1998). Resonant Raman Effect in Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes. Journal of Materials Research, 13(9); 2396–2404
Rawat, A., M. Rawat, O. Prakash, R. Kumar, H. Punetha, and D. S. Rawat (2022). Comparative Study on Eucalyptol and Camphor Rich Essential Oils from Rhizomes of Hedychium spicatum sm. and Their Pharmacological, Antioxidant and Antifungal Activities. Anais Da Academia Brasileira De Ciências, 94; e20210932
Rehman, R., W. Ahmad, R. Muzaffar, A. Bano, I. Sajid, A. U. Ahsan, and U. Naeem (2024). Insect Repellent and Insecticidal Potential of Two Eucalyptus Species Essential Oils from Subtropical Desert Climate. Chemical Papers, 78(4); 2369–2384
Shoukat, R. and M. I. Khan (2021). Carbon Nanotubes: A Review on Properties, Synthesis Methods and Applications in Micro and Nanotechnology. Microsystem Technologies, 27; 4183–4192
Susi, S., M. Ainuri, W. Wagiman, and M. Falah (2022). Effect of Delignification and Bleaching Stages on Cellulose Purity of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, volume 1116. page 012018
Syahza, A. and B. Asmit (2020). Development of Palm Oil Sector and Future Challenge in Riau Province, Indonesia. Journal of Science and Technology Policy Management, 11(2); 149–170
Tu, H., M. Zhu, B. Duan, and L. Zhang (2021). Recent Progress in High-Strength and Robust Regenerated Cellulose Materials. Advanced Materials, 33(28); 2000682
Tuhmaz, G. (2024). Perspective Chapter: Sustainable Nanofibers and Their Applications. IntechOpen
Veerendranadh, Y., D. Ramarao, and U. Sambamoorthy (2018). Fundamentals of Eucalyptus Oil Extraction and Use. Unpublished work or book chapter (publisher and year not specified)
Vârban, R., I. Crișan, D. Vârban, A. Ona, L. Olar, A. Stoie, and R. Ștefan (2021). Comparative FT-IR Prospecting for Cellulose in Stems of Some Fiber Plants: Flax, Velvet Leaf, Hemp and Jute. Applied Sciences, 11(18); 8570
Wang, L., K. Li, K. Copenhaver, S. Mackay, M. E. Lamm, X. Zhao, and D. Neivandt (2021). Review on Nonconventional Fibrillation Methods of Producing Cellulose Nanofibrils and Their Applications. Biomacromolecules, 22(10); 4037–4059
Wohlert, M., T. Benselfelt, L. Wågberg, I. Furó, L. A. Berglund, and J. Wohlert (2022). Cellulose and the Role of Hydrogen Bonds: Not in Charge of Everything. Cellulose; 1–23
Zhang, Q., E. Zhu, T. Li, L. Zhang, and Z. Wang (2024). High-Value Utilization of Cellulose: Intriguing and Important Effects of Hydrogen Bonding Interactions—A Mini-Review. Biomacromolecules, 25(10); 6296–6318
Zhou, M., D. Chen, Q. Chen, P. Chen, G. Song, and C. Chang (2024). Reversible Surface Engineering of Cellulose Elementary Fibrils: From Ultralong Nanocelluloses to Advanced Cellulosic Materials. Advanced Materials, 36(21); 2312220
Authors
Sari, W. F. ., Haryati, S., & Mohadi, R. . (2025). Development of Nanofiber Made of Nanocellulose with Oil Encapsulation of Eucalyptus sp. Science and Technology Indonesia, 10(4), 1074–1086. https://doi.org/10.26554/sti.2025.10.4.1074-1086
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